The Warriors Honor: A Review :: essays research papers

The Warrior’s Honour   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Warrior’s Honour by Michael Ignatieff conveys the harsh realities of ethnic war to the reader. It opens a window to pictures and experiences that most cannot, and do not , think of on a daily basis. Michael Igantieff has experienced there realities as he travelled around the world in his work as a journalist, and it is in this book that he shares with us his thoughts and ideas about these war torn countries. In this paper I will review the book and discuss major themes and arguments, as well as the downfall and shortcomings of it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Very early on the in book ignatieff makes it very clear why he wanted to embark on his journeys and also what he wishes to tell us through this book. He writes of his journeys purpose on page three: â€Å"I wanted to find out what mixture of moral solidarity and hubris led Western nations to embark on this brief adventure in putting the world to rights† (Ignatieff 3). He is speaking of the sudden surge of â€Å"interventionist internationalism [that] had swelled during the gulf War†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Ignatieff 3). He also states: â€Å"†¦ what, if anything, still connects the zones of safety where I and mot readers of this book are likely to live, and the zones of danger where ethnic struggle has become a way of life?† (Ignatieff 4). Ignatieff clearly maps out the direction of this book by stating: My Concern here is with moral obligation, beyond our tribe, be- yond our nation, family, intimate network. The Warrior’s Honour is about the impulse we all feel to â€Å"do something† when we see some terrible report on television from Bosnia or Afghanistan (Ignatieff 4). Ignatieff does not get to these points and arguments until late in the book but leading up to them there are a great deal of arguments and theories made.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One of these such arguments is captured in the title of the first chapter: â€Å" Is Nothing Sacred? The Ethics of Television†. Does the media only display a shallow unfeeling report of the developing and warring world’s strife? Or do they open our eyes to that strife in order to make us reach out. The first chapter of The Warrior’s Honour deals with these questions. Ignatieff first presents a strong case for the side of the media, outlining the facts that it has done a â€Å"good deed† by opening the eyes of the Western world and not to mention their pockets (Ignatieff 10).

Aggression in Sport essay

Introduction: Aggression in sport has always been a major issue. Whether it be insults thrown around a school yard playground during a game of football. To hateful attacks on other players, be it physical or verbal, in the premier division of any sport. It can be a problem for the individual who is acting aggressive, such as a disciplinary action or the recipient of the aggression, for example they could suffer injury as result.This can have a larger effect. Sporting teams can lose key players due to injury, because of an aggressive action or to disciplinary action, such as an athlete being sidelined for a number of weeks because of their aggressive behaviour. This can also cause problems for the sport’s governing body as a whole, and for these reasons, action must be taken to reduce athlete aggression in sport.Even the International Society of Sport Psychology recently recognized that sport aggression has become a social problem both on and off the playing field and has recom mended ways to curtail this behaviour (Tenenbaum, Stewart, Singer, & Duda, 1997) In this information sheet I will describe the different forms of aggression and how it can be dealt with. Definitions Of aggression: A forceful behaviour, action, or attitude that is expressed physically, verbally, or symbolically. It may arise from innate drives or occur as a defence mechanism, often resulting from a threatened ego.It is manifested by either constructive or destructive acts directed toward oneself or against others. (Mosby's Medical Dictionary, 8th edition.  © 2009, Elsevier) ‘Aggression is any behaviour that is intended to harm another individual by physical or verbal Means. ’ (Bull, 1990) ‘Aggression is any form of behaviour directed toward the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment. ’ (Baron, 1994) ‘Aggression is an intentional physically or psychologically harmful behaviour that is directed at anot her living organism. (Thirer, 1993) Sporting definition of aggression: Used by the athlete to channel their will to win at all odds and determination to sacrifice their own or their opponents, bodies in the cause of victory. Gills criteria for aggressive behaviour: Are 4 main factors which describe aggressive behaviour which were identified by Gill in 1980; there are as follows: * It is a form of behaviour: aggression can be either physical or verbal. * It involves causing harm or injury: Aggression is designed to cause either psychological or physiological harm. The injury or harm is directed towards another human being: Aggression is directed towards either another human or animal. * Aggression is always done with purpose: If a seemingly aggressive act is genially done by accident it cannot be classed as aggression. Types of aggressive behaviour: Aggression cannot always be characterized as the same. A defender in football can perform aggressive tackles without breaking the rules of the game, and not all athletes have the same motive and expected outcome for their aggression. There are three main times of aggression which can characterize an athlete’s sporting performance.Hostile aggression: The prime motive of hostile aggression is to harm an opponent, where the chief aim of the aggressor is to inflict injury. Hostile aggression the desired outcome of the aggressor is to harm another player, for personal reasons. For example if in hockey a player can go in for a very aggressive challenge, but if his aim is to get the ball then it is not hostile aggression. If the player goes in for an aggressive challenge where his aim is to not only get the ball but to harm the player then it is hostile aggression. The act of aggression usually stems from an incident which occurred earlier in the game.Take the hockey example again, Say the aggressor had the ball and was dribbling it towards the goal and another player, who is already on a green car, trips him with h is stick in the circle, and the umpire doesn’t give a foul or a penalty. The player may feel that justice may not have been done; the other player should have been given a yellow card and sent off for 5 minutes, and his team should have been awarded a penalty. Therefore the player may wish to take the law into his own hands. Say the same player who committed the fowl has the ball.The aggressor, still angry from the earlier incident, may go in for a aggressive tackle with the purpose of causing the player intentional harm. For example he could lift his elbow to hit the player in the face. This can have two outcomes; the player may get hurt, making the aggressor feel like justice has been done. However, the umpire can call the player up on this and depending on the severity award him a green, yellow or red card. This cause the player to believe justice still has not been done, as he has been punished for a similar fowl that the other player got away with.This may cause further anger the player and may lead him to cause more aggressive incidents. B-tec national sport and exercise sciences, Mark Adams, Heinemann, 2007 Beckham’s red card. http://www. worldcupblog. org/world-cup-moments/world-cup-moments-david-beckhams-red-card-vs-argentina-in-1998. html Aggressive actions violate the rules of any game and such indiscretions are dysfunctional in the context of sport. Often an aggressive player will disrupt the team’s performance and spoil the cohesion of the group. A high profile example of this was David Beckham’s sending of in England vs.Argentina in the 1998 world cup in France. On the 30th of June 1998, The English national football team were playing Argentina in the quarter finals of the world cup. David Beckham made himself a hero in the previous game, scouring a spectacular free kick winner against Columbia. Almost strait after kickoff Diego Simeone was â€Å"tripped† in the penalty box and a controversial penalty was given which Gabriel Batistuta netted to make it 1-0. After the half time break the score was level at 2-2. Diego Simeone made a deliberately clumsy challenge on David Beckham, brining him to the floor.Though many thought Simeone should be sent off for such a blatantly harmful challenge, The referee, Kim Milton Nielson awarded Simeone a yellow card. Possibly feeling angered over the arguable â€Å"Dive† in the penalty box, and then the rough challenge with Simeone only being given a yellow card, Beckham took the law into his own hands. He gently kicked Simeone on the calf. Though Simeone went down rather theatrically to such a weak kick, Beckham had still broken the laws of the game and was sent off. This had a negative effect on the team.With out Beckham to put together passes in the midfield, England had trouble getting the ball up the field. When the game went to penalties and Beckham wasn’t avalibul to take one (he had a reputation for scouring penalty kicks) England lost . http://sports. jrank. org/pages/351/Beckham-David-1998-World-Cup-Fiasco. html This is an interesting case as there were many factors which caused his aggression. There was a lot of pressure on him and his ego would have been on a high after his fantastic performance against Columbia. He didn’t perform particularly well throughout the game which would have caused him to become frustrated.Dollard et al (1939) said in his Frustration – aggression Theory â€Å"that aggression is always caused by some form of frustration† and â€Å"that people are motivated to reach goals, but if these goals are blocked then frustration occurs. † Therefore, his frustration may have leaded him to act aggressively. Also the Disputed dive by someone in the first half may also have increased his frustration. Berkowitz (1965) proposed in his revised frustration-aggression theory that any negative thoughts, not just frustration, can bring on aggressive behaviour, one of those nega tive thoughts being threat.When Simeone brought Beckham down with his rough tackle from behind, would have felt threatened. He hadn’t been playing as well as what was expected of him and was then brought down in an embarrassing challenge. Beckham may have felt that the yellow card wasn’t enough and decided to take out his aggression with the purposeful kick to the calf. This would have fulfilled his own sense of justice, however, the kick was seen and the red card was awarded. This was defiantly hostile aggression His sending of affected the team badly and contributed to the eventual defeat. ttp://www. bbc. co. uk/dna/h2g2/A47629317 Threats to self-esteem may lead people to act aggressively without thinking about the consequences. Hostile aggression can involve immediate reactions in blind fury, or carefully planned and deliberate acts. The Beckham incident was a blind fury reaction where the previous hockey scenario was planned. http://www. psypress. co. uk/smithandma ckie/resources/topic. asp? topic=ch13-tp-02 #What Triggers Aggression Instrumental aggression: El-hadji Diouf (centre) after shove on mark Schwarzer (floor) http://www. dailytelegraph. om. au/sport/soccer/schwarzer-caught-in-the-crossfire/story-e6frey4r-1225926429183 Instrumental aggression is when somebody displays aggressive behaviour, in pursuit of a non-aggressive goal. Where an athlete acts in an aggressive way, not to harm the recipient as in hostile aggression, but so they can achieve a goal such as winning an athletic competition. Instrumental aggression is not the result of anger and seeking revenge. It is an aggression type that mainly serves one's own interest in an individual sport or the interests of the team in team sports.A real life example occurred on the Saturday, 18 September 2010 in a football match between Blackburn rovers and Fulham F. C. The Blackburn goal keeper Paul Robinson sent forward a long free-kick which Fulham keeper mark Schwarzer came to collect. Ho wever winger, El-hadji Diouf, intentionally ran into Schwarzer, knocking him to the ground. This allowed Blackburn striker Chris samba to easily head the ball into the empty net. This is a perfect example of instrumental aggression. Diouf made an aggressive attack on schwarzer, not with the aim of harming him, but so samba could score, giving Blackburn the lead. ttp://news. bbc. co. uk/sport1/hi/football/eng_prem/9000608. stm Luis Suarez’s handball. http://www. thisislondon. co. uk/standard-sport/worldcup/article-23852532-full-of-praise-for-luis-suarezs-handywork. do Apter (1993) has pointed out there are often a set of unofficial rules, as well as the official rules, governing what aggressive behaviours are acceptable. For example there have been many occasions in football where a player has been on a clean run to goal, only to be illegally pulled back or tackled by another player.This is instrumental aggression as there is a non- aggressive goal, It against the rules of the game and punishable with a red card, but is considered normal. A high profile example would be the case of Luis suarez in the 2010 world cup. On Friday the 2nd of July 2010, The Uruguay national football team were playing Ghana in a world cup quarter final match. The game went in the second half of extra time Ghana took a corner which Adeyah headed towards goal. Luis Suarez a out field player then extended his arm and blocked the ball with his hand.Ghana were awarded a penalty and Suarez a red card and a sending off. However when Ghana’s Asamoah Gyan missed the penalty and Uruguay won the game Suarez was hailed as a hero by most South American football fans. After the game Suarez said â€Å"†There was no alternative but for me to do that and when they missed the penalty I thought ‘It is a miracle and we are alive in the tournament',†. Fans throughout Africa however, despised Suarez for this. This example can be used to support Apter’s claim. Though against the rules fans all over South America believed Suarez’s actions were acceptable.He knew the risks and was punished, but still this act of instrumental aggression cause Uruguay to progress. This is has come to be known as sanctioned aggression, that is instrumental aggression where that whilst not within the official rules is still accepted as normal, even though it would be punished. Husman and Silva (1984) however, argued that sanctioned act of aggression have been mislabelled as aggressive and should be called assertive. As there is no real intent to harm an opposing player. http://news. bbc. co. uk/sport1/hi/football/world_cup_2010/8785140. tm An example of unsanctioned aggression would be in the World Cup semi-final of 1982 between France and West Germany. Patrick Battiston was chasing a bouncing through ball as Germany keeper, Harold Schumacher came charging out of his goal. Battiston reached the ball first but Schumacher leapt up and smashed into him, knocking h im unconscious. He eventually recovered but he lost several teeth and at one point fell into a coma. This is unsanctioned aggression. Though Schumacher’s aim was to prevent a goal and not to hurt Battiston, the challenge was acknowledged as extremely dangerous and thus unsanctionedHostile aggression Vs Instrumental aggression A case where it becomes difficult to identify the difference between Hostile and instrumental aggression is in the case of combat sports, as the whole aim of the sport is to cause some degree of harm. In boxing one may become frustrated and aggressively hit the opposing boxer harder and eventually knock him out. This is instrumental aggression as you have to harm your opponent in some way to win, but this is often done with the view of winning, not causing your opponent harm.The boxer may throw a few â€Å"rabbit† punches ( a hit to the back of the head) or hit with his elbow. This would be sanctioned instrumental aggression. A minor breach of the rules stemming from the boxers desire to win. Unsanctioned instrumental aggression can be hard to differentiate from hostile aggression in this scenario. However I believe it is possible take these two examples: Two boxers are in round 9 of a match and one of them can’t seem to wear his opponent down. He is losing on points and needs to harm the other boxer.When the two next lock arms and he believes he is out of the view of the referee he quickly hits the other boxer in the groin with his knee. This is unsanctioned instrumental aggression. The boxers aim was to harm the other boxer, but only so he could win. A blow to the groin can cause shortness of breath and intense pain. A groin hit, unlike rabbit punches is a serious fowl, and can result in instant disqualification. Mike Tyson Vs Evander Holyfeild http://www. 411mania. com/boxing/columns/132418 A famous hostile aggressive act occurred in June 28, 1997, in a boxing match between mike Tyson and Evander Holyfield.In the p revious Tyson-Holyfield fight, seven months earlier, Holyfield, who opened as a 25-to-1 underdog), floored Tyson for the second time in Tyson's career in the sixth round, and scored a TKO over Tyson in round 11. Holyfield dominated Tyson throughout the fight, winning almost every round. Baumeister (1996) specified a model in which egotism, in response to ego threat, leads to aggression. Mike Tysons first loss to Holyfield was only the second in his career and first loss in 7 years. This leads me to believe Tysons ego was inflated and then threatened after the first loss.This would have caused genuine feelings of hate for Holyfield. Holyfield won the first two rounds of the fight which must have further frustrated Tyson. Then 00:40 minutes to the end of the first round Tyson caught Holyfield in a clinch and bit off a piece of Holyfield’s ear and spat it on the ring floor, he then pushed Holyfield as he walked back to his corner. The fight resumed with a two point deduction fro m Tyson. In his rage he bit Holyfield again on the opposite ear. The referee disqualified Tyson.In reaction Tyson went on rampage at Holyfield and Holyfield's trainer Brooks while they were still in their corner. Tyson took swings at the people in his way, but was taken back to his corner by security. This is hostile aggression at its worse. Tyson bit Holyfield’s ears to cause genuine harm stemming from his frustration and threatened ego. The post-match rampage was another example of hostile aggression as the only thought in Tysons head must have been to cause harm. Smith (1983) argued, however, that all aggressive acts in sport are instrumental and carried out with some end in mind.Smith, therefore, concludes that the distinction between instrumental and hostile aggression is not a useful and it is difficult to separate empirically where a particular aggressive act may have a variety of different outcomes. Therefore, both aggressive acts are the same. In contrast to smiths a rgument Husman and Silva (1984), and Martens (1975) argue that although both hostile and instrumental aggression include intent to injure, the relatively common incidents of angry retaliation which occur as the result of provocation in team contact sports can be seen as hostile aggression.The so called professional foul which occurs especially in soccer where a player is tackled and usually brought down to prevent him from scoring can be seen as an ac of instrumental aggression. Rethinking aggression and violence in sport, John H Kerr, Routledge, 2005 Assertion: Aggression http://blog. incomeaccess. com/6322/2010/07/12/world-cup-fallout-dutch-captain-retiresas-does-paul-the-psychic-octopus/ggression Assertion is the third main type of aggression, however, Assertive behaviour does not attempt to harm and is strictly within the rules and spirit of the game.Assertive behaviour shows when an athlete becomes more energetic, robust and forcefully with every movement they make. They may al so raise their voice and speak in a more forceful manor to team mates and opposition, but the difference between hostile and instrumental aggression is that there is no intention to harm your opponent and break the rules. Bredemeier (1994) and Silva (1978) said â€Å"Assertiveness is distinct from aggressiveness in that it is the nonhostile, noncoercive tendency to behave with intense and energetic behaviour to accomplish one's goal†. Assertion was described y Parens (1987) as nonhostile self-protective mastery behaviour. A prime example of an assertive athlete is English footballer Rio Ferdinand. Rio has a low red card and yellow card count, yet is still known for his tough tackling defensive style. He is also very vocal on the pitch, he is known for barking orders to his defensive team mates and often voicing his opinion on referee decisions. Despite this he has a low red and yellow card count because he doesn’t break any rules. A sliding tackle for example is illega l if you don’t get the ball first and instead get the opposing player.The opposing player may get hurt, but as long as the player got the ball first and the defender had no intention what-so-ever to harm the other player it cannot be classed as aggression. If the defender performed an illegal two-footed challenge and hit the opposing player’s leg, it is aggression. Psychology and sport, Sally Gadsdon, Heinemann, 2001 Assertion http://www. bbc. co. uk/french/highlights/story/2008/05/080521_champsleague_pix. shtml Another example of assertion would be in Boxing. During a match a boxer will try to physically harm another boxer through jabs and other punching techniques.This however, is required in the sport and is therefore assertion rather than aggression. If however, said boxer hit his opponent with his elbow after failing to land a punch, or occasionally throwing a rabbit punch to gain an advantage it becomes instrumental aggression. Bakker et al (1990) found that aggr ession increased when a team is losing, particularly in a game of great importance. The Beckham- Simone incident discussed earlier in this report is an example of this. It was the world cup quarter-final and tensions were high. Another example is that of the 2010 world cup final between the eventual winners Spain and Holland.Though they were not losing, Holland were unable to make significant breaks. Spain had 57% of the possession and there fast passing strategy caused problems for the defence. Holland played aggressively and committed 28 fouls, receiving 8 yellow cards and 1 second yellow; meaning a red card was given to John Hetitinga. Arjen Robben showed significant signs of aggression, throwing the match ball away from play when a offside went against him. He had previously had 2 clean runs, but the Spanish keeper Iker Casillas, which must have frustrated him. This compared to Holland’s last 16 games against the lesserSlovakia when only 2 yellow cards were awarded, suppo rt Bakker’s argument. http://news. bbc. co. uk/sport1/hi/football/world_cup_2010/default. stm Causes of Aggression Before we discuss means of preventing aggression in sport it is important we understand how and why an athlete may become aggressive in the first place. A number of theories are still in competition as to why we are aggressive; however, I am going to concentrate on three of the most popular theories; the instinct theory, Frustration Aggression theory, and the social learning theory.Instinct theory An instinct is an innate tendency to behave in a certain way. Basically this theory suggests that we as the human race are aggressive in sporting environments because it is in are genetic makeup, and therefore inevitable. Sigmund Freud (1919) was responsible for much of the psychoanalytical work of the instinct theory. Freud proposed that we are motivated towards two opposing instincts the life drive (Eros) and the death Drive (Thanatos). Freud believe people are motiva ted towards self- destruction through the death instinct.Therefore, Eros and Thanatos are always in conflict and to resolve the conflict the aggression must be turned outwards, towards other. However, Freud also proposed that although aggression is always with us, we maintain the ability to exert some control over it. Thus it is not always inevitable. Richards (1994) looked at sport as a healthy way to release our death instinct. He studied the importance we attach to kicking in our aggressive tendencies and applied this to sports like football and rugby and termed them civilising influences.Sport Psychology: a students handbook, Matt Jarvis, Routledge, 2006 A similar take on the instinct theory is that of ethology. Konrad Lorenz (1966) was responsible for much of the work on the ethological approach to this theory. Lorenz proposed that the human race have evolved to have a fighting instinct which is trigger by certain environmental stimuli. Lorenz believed that accumulated aggressi ve energy and the presents of aggression-releasing environmental stimuli would lead to a display of aggression, such as in a sporting environment. Advanced Studies in PhysicalEducation and sport, by Paul Beashel and John Taylor, Nelsons and sons ltd, 1996 Both Freud and Lorenz’s theorys support the idea of catharsis, the release of aggressive energies through aggression. So how does this relate to sport, for example imagine a linebacker in American football player who has had a rather frustrating game. He has thus far been truly able to get involved for a number of games. However he has been able to maintain his frustration and not lash out in a hostile way. Suddenly a player on the opposite side breaks through and is running to scour a touchdown.The line backer gives chase and takes him down with a legal tackle. This cathartis through assertiveness. Play like this supports Richards’s belief of sport being a healthy way to release aggression. Many have refuted the idea that sport enables aggressive catharsis, one such research case being Zillman, Day and Johnson (1974). They compared the aggressive tendencies of athletes competing in aggressive sports athletes competing in non-aggressive sports and non athletes. The study found there was no difference between the three groups, which contradict the aggression-cathartis theory.In accordance with this theory those participating in aggressive sports would be expected to be less aggressive as they had the opportunity to release there aggression through sport. However I do not believe this argument is broad enough to disprove this theory. Why, in an aggressive sport, while you may have more opportunity to release your aggression through catharsis, so does your opponent. If one team is being constantly bested by the other instead of becoming less aggressive they will become more aggressive. This argument is supported by Dollards the Frustration- Aggression theory (1939) which I will discuss later.Psycho logy and sport, Sally Gadsdon, Heinemann, 2001 Whether aggression is innate or learned remains an ongoing argument in psychology. The Instincts involved in these theorys are difficult to identify and thus forth difficult to test. The main problem is that is aggression was instinctive and not learnt then every being on earth would display the same aggressiveness. Instinct theories only concentrate on aggression being innate and don’t take into account important environmental factors. Lore and Schultz (1993) have pointed out that all vertebrates show aggression, therefore; it must be a survival trait, in accordance with Lorenz’s argument.However Baron ; Richardson (1992) have said that cross-cultural studies have found wide variation in human aggression. Smaller rural cultures such as the arapesh of new guinea have shown very little aggression in contrast to European and American standards, which suggests Morden life increases aggression, which is a environmental factor. There is lack of direct evidence to disprove this theory though it is obvious that different people have different levels of aggression, and if aggression is an instinct we all share then are aggressiveness would be the same.Fustration-Aggresion Theory These theories, closely linked to instinct theorys due to aggression being innate, propose that although we all have an innate aggressive drive, aggressive behaviour is elicited by frustration. Anderson ; Dill, (1995) describe frustration as an interference blocking someone from obtaining a goal; aggression is a behavior in response to frustration, intended to harm the person blocking the goal. The main belief behind these theorys is that an aggressive act stems from an aggressive drive, drive being a state of inner tension.The First of these theories was the drive reduction theory put forward by Dollard el al (1939). This stated that frustration is caused by an inability to obtain a goal. The frustration triggers an aggressive drive which leads to aggressive acts. Dollard put forward a particular model which showed his hypothesis: Above is Dollard et als frustration-aggression model (1939). It shows how a blockade to an athletes causes frustration which leads to aggression. Then the athlete can deal with his anger successfully within the rules of a the game; Cathartis.For example a rugby player who has been tackled a number of times whilst trying to score a try, not all of those tackles legal, uses his aggression to legally barge his way past some backs and outruns the fullback to score a try. According to Dollards model this would cut out the obstacle (the backs) causing to frustration and aggression to subside. However the aggression could be released unsuccessfully. This would mean that the player would break the rules of the game and act overly aggressive, leading to punishment. This causes the cycle to continue.The punishment would cause the player to become even more frustrated which again would lead to further aggression. Then, again they can release it unsuccessfully causing the cycle to continue or release it successfully, breaking the cycle. For example say the rugby player from above didn’t make the try. He became more and more frustrated at the outside centre who continuously tackles him. Ones he breaks through the defensive line again the outside centre charges him. His frustration leads to aggression and he gives the outside centre an elbow as he passes.The referee may see this and give the player a yellow card, causing the player to spend time in the sin bin. This will lead to further frustration. When the player returns the further built up frustration may cause him to commit another foul and be shown a red card, removing him for the rest of the game. This frustration could possibly carry over until the next game, and if that doesn’t go well then the game after that to. This can cause this player to go through a term of â€Å"Bad Form† which is a comm on occurrence in many athletes.Psychology and sport, Sally Gadsdon, Heinemann, 2001 Many sports psychologists have agreed with Dollards original modle. Anderson ; Dill (1995) also stated that â€Å"all acts of aggression are the result of previous frustration and all frustration leads to aggression†. Berkowitz (1989),however, reformulated the frustration – aggression hypothesis, proposing that frustration results from an inability to obtain a goal, creating a readiness for aggression or anger. This anger may lead to aggression if there is an aggressive â€Å"cues† are present. This may be a person, object or situation related to the frustrating event.Though Berkowitz also states that an aggressive Cue doesn’t always have to be present to release aggression, though they make it more likely. Also in this argument frustration doesn’t always lead to aggression. A classic example of an aggressive cue is a football fan. Say a football fan is watching his supported team at home and they lose 3-0 to Wolverhampton wanderers. He is frustrated at the teams loss though doesn’t show aggression. Later in the week he is playing a Sunday morning football game with his team and there opponents have a dark yellow kit, a kit similar to wolves.This may trigger his aggression at his football team’s loss, leading to him acting aggressive in the coming game. Applying sport psychology: 4 perspectives, Jim Taylor ; Gregory Scott-Wilson, Human Kinetics, 2005 Dollards original theory has been criticized for being over simplistic, stating that a blocked goal will always lead to frustration and frustration to aggression. Bandura (1973) criticized Dollard and his Yale associates formulation as a drive theory, holding that frustration typically only creates a general emotional arousal.Zillman (1979) was also dubious and attained that demonstrations of aggression as a response to frustration were attributed to personal attack or the instrument al value of aggressive reactions. Zillman contended that â€Å"the blockage of a goal in of itself will not induce hostility or aggression. In contrast Baron (1977) was far more favourably disposed, but maintained that frustration is far less common or important as an ascendant of aggression. Baron suggested that â€Å"barriers to goal attainment would only invoke a aggressive reaction, if they were unexpected†. ttp://www. radford. edu/~jaspelme/_private/gradsoc_articles/aggression/frustration%20aggression. pdf The Frustration-aggression hypothesis validity has been greatly increased with berkowitz amendments. One of the theorys biggest criticisms was that frustration would not always lead to aggression and that aggression is possible without frustration. Berkowitz changed the hypothesis to state that frustration is a contributing factor to aggression, but another factor could set it off, or it could simply subside, which answered to that particular argument.However Berkowit z still does not address other factors which could lead to aggression. Some psychologists have argued that we need to understand the meaning of aggressive acts for the individual carrying them out. These theorists often see aggression as a calculated, utility maximising act exacted so as to gain calculated benefits. These theories may perhaps help to explain the wide variety of motivational influences that can lead to aggression. Social learning theory Another approach to human aggression comes in the form of the social learning

Hydraulic Fracking And Its Effects On The Nation Of The...

Hydraulic fracturing is either referred to as â€Å"fracking† or â€Å"hydrofracking.† It is a generally new technique for oil and gas extraction. Basically for shale gas and tight oil, including cracking of rock by a pressurized fluid. Even penetrating takes into account the infusion of very pressurized fracking liquids into shale rock layers profound inside the earth. After a well is drilled, it is cased with bond trying to guarantee groundwater security and the shale is using pressurized water broke with water, chemicals, sand and other fracking liquids. This makes new channels inside the stone from which natural gas is removed at higher than customary rates. The process of hydraulic fracturing – shooting water, sand, and chemicals at high pressure into underground wells to release natural gas – is a divisive issue: Some say it dumps chemicals into ground water supplies, others argue it causes earthquakes, and still others think it can revolutionize America’s energy industry. The most active fracking plays in the country of the United States. These are the top states in which hydraulic fracking occurs the most; New York, North Dakota, Montana, Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, Colorado, Wyoming and Utah. The largest estimated U.S. oil and gas reserves are in Southern and Central California in the Monterey shale formation, though producers have faced significant challenges. The state is being targeted as the site of the next petroleum boom, and the topic of oil and gas leases in the stateShow MoreRelatedEssay Hydraulic Fracturing Must be Reformed1457 Words   |  6 Pagesacross the nation, in light of new technology making extracting natural gas much easier. A Healthy alternative to the fossil fuels we so frivolously use is now more critical than ever. In 2011, the United States used 18.83 million barrels of raw oil daily, and in 2010 19.18 million barrels of petroleum products and biofuels. In 2010 and 2011, that was nearly 22% of the world’s oil supply . 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Virtual Teams A Threat Of Globalization Of Business Essay

The use of virtual teams as a result of globalization of business is on the rise. However, several challenges have made virtual teams difficult to implement. Amongst such challenges are time differences between global locations, technological setbacks, data transmission and bandwidth, trust, number of meeting, and others. Coupled with real time discussions and actions, many global companies that addressed above challenges were successful in forming and implementing global virtual teams. Overall, the efficiencies measured in terms of quality and quantity increased as a result of the use of virtual teams within global organizations. INTRODUCTION With constant and rapid innovation in the IT domain, many global organizations are moving to virtual team structures in order to improve productivity and maintain synchronicity within their global structure. Many companies have had success in forming global virtual teams, though some have failed. As technology improves, there is a question of increasing effectiveness of virtual teams. It is currently accepted that virtual teams are typically less productive than traditional face to face teams. Global organizations span many time zones, and so temporal variances can play a large factor for teams whose members reside in time zones with substantial time differences. Bandwidth of communication can also be a hindrance for global organizations as well. Teams that need to share data remotely face problems when dealing with largeShow MoreRelatedThe Challenges of Globalization: Best Practices and the Correct Approach to Cross-Cultural Understanding and Cooperation1875 Words   |  7 Pagesï » ¿Globalization Introduction A great deal of research and reporting has gone into the emerging international movement known as globalization and the business ramifications of globalization has been reviewed and analyzed as the main focus of globalization. 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Medias Influence on Crime in Postmodern Society - 970 Words

How do the Media Influence our understandings about crime in postmodern society? Can they also influence levels of crime? The media has a huge influence on how crime is presented and perceived. In fact, the media might even have an impact on crime prevalence and type. Reiner (2007) points out that hard scientific evidence shows that television viewing affects the ways children behave, and that children imitate violent images, (Reiner, 2007, p. 302). Based on this information, it is not just the news media that may be to blame for some types of crime rate increases. Violent video games could also be implicated in overall desensitiziation or normalization of violence. Desensitization might cause individuals to perpetrate criminal acts. Alternatively, desensitization from overexposure to media might cause some individuals to condone or under-report crime. Media depicting law enforcement and other social institutions in a negative light could also lead to an antagonistic view of the law, leading to a general sense of anomie. It has long been feared that the media is a significant cause of offending, (Reiner, 2007, p. 302). In addition to the desensitization to violent imagery that may occur via exposure to the media, individuals may also be cultivating anomie: the condition of social apathy. The types of violence that are shown in the media, news media and otherwise, also reveal a sick postmodern society. Within this framework, some types of crime might take place moreShow MoreRelatedDoes Pornography Exploit or Liberate Women? Essay1679 Words   |  7 Pagesincreases the rates of sexually-motivated crimes (Dworkin, 1981; Morgan, 2001); whilst on the other end of the exploitation/liberation spectrum, many others believe pornography to be extremely artistic and liberating for both men and women (McElroy, 1998; Tatchell, 2008). This essay will also investigate the role of women in various societal institutions such as employment, family and the home; and in specific cases, how pornography can relate to, in fluence and equally be influenced by these institutionsRead MoreThe Media Effects Model of Communication Essays2269 Words   |  10 Pagesâ€Å"There are many fascinating questions to be explored about the influence of the media upon our perceptions, and ways of thinking and being in the world† (Gauntlett, 2005). As a result of this over 10,000 studies have been conducted which have looked at the consumption of violent media and the differing responses to different forms of the media amongst different people (Ferrell, 2005). The idea of the media effects debate was originally proposed by the Frankfurt School as a result of people’s reactionsRead MoreJuvenile Delinquency : The Basis Of Public Fear2219 Words   |  9 PagesThis essay will look at the way in which juvenile delinquency came into existence and became the basis of public fear. It will look at the way the concept of ‘childhood’ was developed and the way in which laws brought juvenile delinquenc y in to the media’s concern. In order to understand the way in which juvenile delinquency was legislated we need to understand the basis of juvenile delinquency which starts from the process of ‘childhood’. This concept of childhood was not in existence before the 17thRead MoreSociology A2 Revision 2012 34479 Words   |  18 PagesWednesday 13th June, am Unit 4 exam: Tuesday 19th June, pm Easter Revision: tbc A2 Syllabus: AQA Sociology GCE (new specification) Unit 3: Mass Media (SCLY3) Worth 20% of your final A Level Written paper, 1 hour 30 minutes 60 marks available Unit 4: Crime and Deviance with Theory and Methods (SCLY4) Worth 30% of your final A Level Written paper, 2 hours 90 marks available Timetable Use your revision checklists to draw up a timetable for revision leading up to the exam. Make sure you cover everything

On philosophy Free Essays

Virginia Held, in her article Feminist Transformations of Moral Theory, claims that the historical groundings of the precepts of philosophy, including the sets of ethical theories and positions, and philosophy in general have been erected from the viewpoints of men and that the ideas involved are not entirely â€Å"gender-neutral† as they appear to claim themselves (Held). One can observe that throughout the stretch of the time that encompassed the early stages of philosophy up to the time of the industrial revolution and the onset of the age of globalization, men have dominated the field of philosophy. Women in the past societies in particular were given very minimal role in social activities and endeavors inasmuch as most of these women were simply confined to their homes and their tasks were greatly deprived of social participation (Claassen and Joyce). We will write a custom essay sample on On philosophy or any similar topic only for you Order Now This observation leads us to the assumption that, because of these deterring factors on the very presence of women in the society, women have also played very little part in the development of philosophy in general and the number of philosophical discussions all-over the world. The rise of feminism alongside and the shift in the patriarchal patterns that loomed over societies, however, have appeared to dissolve one by one the barriers that isolate women from having a part in the philosophical plane. One can further analyze that Virginia appears to argue that what the philosophy we know of today is the product of the past philosophizing done in large part by men. Richard Brandt, for this matter, has principally endorsed in some of his works the idea of overcoming bias and prejudice in the very precepts of morality (Stevenson). This observation appears to relieve Brandt of the accusations hurled by Virginia towards the evolution of philosophy throughout the decades that humanity has dwelled on its rough, intricate, and oftentimes bewildering edges. Brandt argues that passion should not be allowed to intervene whenever we are to delve into matters that concern morality for it blurs the capacity of our reason and thinking on equally significant moral issues (Brandt). If this is the case, indeed Brandt may have already swung himself off the reaches of Virginia’s accusations with regards to traditional philosophy for the reason that traditional philosophy has been seen to be relished with all sorts of manly traces. The suggestion being offered by Brandt is one that relieves philosophy of any bias towards a specific gender in any working context, one that seeks to salvage the philosophy we know today from the dregs of traditional philosophy. However, there remains the contention that even if Brandt is arguing for an objective quest, at least in terms of the moral precepts and moral traditions that humanity has strongly held through time, the very fact that Brandt sees his world from a man’s point of view can be a point of contention. This taunts one to pose questions of uncertainty and credibility with regards to his claim of a rationalizing empty of passion and bias. If Virginia Held is aptly precise and right with her argument, it appears, then, that Brandt’s perception on philosophy and that of morality is not thoroughly empty of bias for the reason that the latter sees the world from the understanding and vision of man whereas women might have a differing view with regards to what they know of about the world they both live in. This leads us to the assumption that, granted Virginia’s arguments are strongly founded, Brandt’s ideas and the rest of his arguments cannot entirely be empty of bias given the fact that he is a man and that a woman thinks rather differently to those of males. And there has indeed been numerous interpretations that separates from traditional philosophy, especially from a feminist approach where women are treated as individuals who also share roles in the society in general. Capital punishment and killings in war Capital punishment is typically utilized in order to put unlawful people before the justice system of societies and put an end to their unlawful means—and to their lives—thereby removing further instances of committing heinous crimes by the same criminal. War killings, on the other hand, are primarily taken to be understood as killings in the battlefield, especially in times of war wherein combatants or armies from the opposing sides are granted by their authorities to obtain their mission through every possible means—such as gunning down the enemy—in order to not only deter the enemy from advancing further but also to finally put an end to the enemy’s existence. From a Kantian perspective, both capital punishment and killings in war are immoral acts in the sense that both of these essentially take away the lives of men which is, on the other hand, strictly against the moral imperatives. Basically, Kant suggests that taking away the life of another individual cannot be justified because it is not the right thing to do at whatever given situation. Utilitarianism, on the other hand, provides us with another view that implies that both capital punishment and war killings can be morally justified given that both of these promote the general good or the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. That is, taking away the life of another individual can be justified in the ethical issues given that the basis for the action is justifiable. And this moral theory asserts that actions can indeed be justified, specifically in the context of the measurement of happiness and its consequent effects on the welfare and happiness of the greatest number of individuals. However, the strand of rule utilitarianism splits from this claim because it argues that rules should not be bent just for the attainment of general happiness which, in this case, is taken to mean that moral precepts and legal rules concerning life should never be flexed in order to fit the situation. Quite on the contrary, the very situations of capital punishment and killings in war should be critically analyzed based on these precepts and rules in order to arrive at the greatest happiness for the greatest number. William Godwin William Godwin is not inclined towards prejudice and thought it as the source of much that is wrong in the world as he also stressed the significant role of impartiality. The value of human life should be taken as a central part of the analysis of Godwin’s claim primarily because in order for the individual to be able to arrive at a sound judgment the individual should nevertheless take a look into the course of the years that have molded the life that he or she possesses (Monro). Prejudice, on the contrary, creates the notion of selectivity wherein the individual may be inclined to prefer this from that or, in another context, this person from another person for a number of reasons pegged on the selective attitude of the person. Without a concern for the value of human life, it would be difficult, if not impossible, to arrive at an impartial attitude towards others primarily because without having a universal sense of benevolence towards mankind in general impartiality can hardly be attained. Hence, in order for one to be able to embrace the idea that prejudice is the source of much that is wrong in the world, one ought to be impartial both in deeds and in thoughts. With a firm consideration on the value of human life among all of humanity, one cannot easily stray away from the holds of an impartial treatment towards other people and that one cannot straightforwardly resort to prejudice. Without having a sense of attachment towards the primacy and value of human life, it would be quite difficult as well, if not more, to act truthfully as a benevolent individual empty of prejudice in thought and deed or to at least pretend to be like an impartial individual. Kant and Singer’s animal rights Kant says that duty is the inevitability or necessity of functioning out of a strict observation for laws that are universal. Consequently, the worth or value of the action done by the individual in terms of moral contexts is essentially drawn from the intention of the action. Moreover, Kant’s treatment of a maxim can be briefly summarized as a given principle upon which one acts such that its nature is based on the manner in the expression of the intention. Thus, the content of the actions in terms of intent have an important role in Kantian ethics. This content can be further expressed in two manners. The first states that there are maxims or imperatives which stipulate that there are acts based on the desires of the individual. This is what Kant calls the hypothetical imperative. On the other hand, those which are based on reason and not merely dependent on one’s desires belong to the categorical imperative. The latter type deals with what ought to be done. All these can be roughly transposed and summarized into Kant’s conception of the practical imperative which claims that one ought to act to treat human beings as ends in themselves and never merely as a means to any given end, whether the individual is the self or another person. Peter Singer argues that ethical precepts should be extended so that it will encompass animals as well. If this is the case, and if we are to place this in the context of Kant’s proposition, then we are to arrive at the idea that, after ethical precepts have been made to be understood to encompass animals, no one is to treat any animal as means in order to arrive at certain ends but rather as the very ends themselves. Kant would disagree with Singer in the sense that the former’s theory is anchored on the rationality of human beings whereas animals are empty of rational capacity. Singer, on the other hand, would disagree with Kant in this notion primarily because animals also have rights and that these rights should be also recognized within the ethical sphere. References Arthur, John. Morality and Moral Controversies: Readings in Moral, Social and Political Philosophy. 7th ed: Prentice Hall, 2004. Brandt, Richard B. â€Å"A Motivational Theory of Excuses in the Criminal Law.†Ã‚   Morality, Utilitarianism, and Rights. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992. 252. Claassen, Cheryl, and Rosemary A. Joyce. â€Å"Women in Prehistory.† American Antiquity 63.1 (1998): 175. Held, Virginia. â€Å"Feminist Transformations of Moral Theory.† Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 50.Supplement (1990): 321. Monro, D. H. â€Å"Godwin’s Moral Philosophy: An Interpretation of William Godwin.† Ethics 64.2 (1954): 134. Stevenson, Charles L. â€Å"Brandt’s Questions About Emotive Ethics.† The Philosophical Review 59.4 (1950): 529.    How to cite On philosophy, Essay examples

Statistics Business Research Methods Employee Motivation

Question: Discuss about the Statistics Business Research Methods for Employee Motivation. Answer: Introduction This research study emphasizes on the aspect of the impact of employee motivation through a reward system. The organization that is considered in this research study is Woolworths, which is the largest supermarket/grocery store chain in Australia. In recent times they have 111,000 employees in 980 stores across Australia, as well as a further 16 convenience storesand desires to increase the number through their different employee motivation approached among which reward system is the most effective (Woolworths Online 2016). This section comprises of the aim and objectives of the research along with the research questions and hypothesis to present an overview of the entire study. Research Aims The aim of the research is to find out the impact of the reward system adopted by Woolworth for motivating their employee so that they can deserve their best to satisfy the needs of the customer's demand. Research Objectives To analyze major components that influence employee motivation To investigate different procedure of reward system To find out the effect of reward system on employee motivation in Woolworth To recommend the most effective reward system for the organization Research Questions What are the major components that influence employee motivation? What are the different procedures of reward system? What are the effects of reward system on employee motivation in Woolworths? What is the most effective reward system for the organization? Research Hypothesis H1: Rewards system motivate the employee in the workplace H0: Rewards system do not motivate the employee in the workplace Literature Review Introduction Graves et al. (2013) stated that employee motivation is a psychological force that brings forward the level of energy, commitment and creativity for obtaining the organizational goals. Leading companies like Woolworth implemented some effective practices that are responsible for motivating their employees- two-way communication between workers and managers, the procedure for evaluating individuals natures and most importantly reward and recognition system of the employee (Lepper and Greene 2015). In this research work, the reward system is taken into consideration that enhances the working procedure for better results. Role of the Reward system Giel et al. (2013) depicts that the employee within an organization is attracted towards two goals- earning a paycheckand provide them quality work. However, incentives, offering new job roles, responsibility, and recognitions are the motivation factors, which help an employee to work with more dedication. There are two modes for motivating the employees- intrinsic and extrinsic way to motivate working personnel (Cerasoli et al. 2014). In the first mode of motivation, an organization is responsible for providing emotional and physiological rewards to the employee that are acceptance, honor, social status, high designation and challenging job responsibilities. Reiss (2012) on the other hand, illustrates that a majority of the employee are looking for financial rewards more than a no n-financial rewards. As a result, an organization provides employee of the month, bonuses, benefits package and organized activities. Figure 1: The components of total reward (Source: Reiss 2012) In order to maximize the positive impact, the reward system is being introduced in the organization. It helps the organization to obtain motivation, job engagement and organizational commitments and the component of the total rearward comprises of transactional rewards and relational rewards. Types of rewards Payment by Result Employees are paid based on their performance. If they perform more than their targeted job, they can obtain incentives. Skills-based pay Employees receive pay for the skills or competencies and they get better recognition depending on their ability Profit sharing Organization awarded the working personnel with company shares or a percentage of the company's profit based on their performance Recognition Recognition is the demonstration of appreciation that is regarded as only adders and their no replacements for pay. Verbal and written recognition, work-related recognition, financial recognition, social recognition and tangible recognition are some of the recognition procedure adopted by the organization. Research Methodology In this section, the approach that is used for doing the research will be illustrated. This section also comprised of research philosophy, approach, design and data collection process along with the sampling techniques and samples. Research Philosophy Mackey and Gass (2015) depicts that there are three research philosophy- positivism, realism and interpretivism. In positivism research philosophy, evaluates various philosophical aspects of research and the realism deals with the scientific inquiry, models and theory of the concept. Lastly, in interpretivism is a philosophy where data taken from respondents is necessary and in this positivism, research philosophy will be applied. Research Approach Inductive and Deductive are the two types of research approaches wherein inductive approach formulation of new theories and deductive approach signifies the testing of previous theories or models of the particular research study (Flick 2015). In this research work, the deductive approach will be performed so that the research work can be supported with the previous research work. Research Purpose Discussed by McNabb (2015), there are three types of research purpose- exploratory, descriptive and explanatory. Exploratory research purpose is used in the long-term process of research; while in inductive approach, the ideas for understanding the cause and effect are linked with each other. Lastly, in descriptive research, the models are elaborated to get a better understanding. In this research work, the descriptive purpose for detailed exploration of the research will be used. Data Collection Method There are two methods through which the data can be collected for accomplishing the research- primary and secondary data collection. Primary data is collected by the interviews, surveys and questionnaires method and secondary data is collected by the published data in journals, books, blogs and websites (Englander 2012). In this research work, the primary data collection will be taken into consideration. Sampling Method Probability and non-probability sampling technique are the two sampling techniques that are used for this research and in this research; the probability sampling technique is used. Larson, and Csikszentmihalyi 2014) defines that in profanity method all the respondents get the equal chance to participate in the data while in the non-probability method, not all respondents get the equal chance. Sample Size In this research, 75 employees of Woolworths are considered for qualitative data analysis and two managers are selected for a personal interview for quantitative data collection. Thus there is a sample size of 77. Summary Employee motivation also plays a crucial role in improving the efficiency relying on the qualifications and abilities of the employee. This results in the high productivity and profitability in low operational cost and improves overall efficiency. This research proposal is aimed at investigating the research for measuring the impact of reward system on the employee motivation. In order to complete the research, primary data collection from employees and managers of the organization is collected and qualitative and quantitative analysis will be formed. At the end of the research, a recommendation of the most effective reward system will be estimated during the research work from the employees of the organization. Reference List Cerasoli, C.P., Nicklin, J.M. and Ford, M.T., 2014. Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic incentives jointly predict performance: A 40-year meta-analysis.Psychological Bulletin,140(4), p.980. Englander, M., 2012. The interview: Data collection in descriptive phenomenological human scientific research.Journal of Phenomenological Psychology,43(1), pp.13-35. Flick, U., 2015.Introducing research methodology: A beginner's guide to doing a research project. Sage. Giel, K.E., Kullmann, S., Preil, H., Bischoff, S.C., Thiel, A., Schmidt, U., Zipfel, S. and Teufel, M., 2013. Understanding the reward system functioning in anorexia nervosa: crucial role of physical activity.Biological psychology,94(3), pp.575-581. Graves, L.M., Sarkis, J. and Zhu, Q., 2013. How transformational leadership and employee motivation combine to predict employee proenvironmental behaviors in China.Journal of Environmental Psychology,35, pp.81-91. Larson, R. and Csikszentmihalyi, M., 2014. The experience sampling method. InFlow and the Foundations of Positive Psychology(pp. 21-34). Springer Netherlands. Lepper, M.R. and Greene, D., 2015.The hidden costs of reward: New perspectives on the psychology of human motivation. Psychology Press. Mackey, A. and Gass, S.M., 2015.Second language research: Methodology and design. Routledge. McNabb, D.E., 2015.Research methods for political science: Quantitative and qualitative methods. Routledge. Reiss, S., 2012. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.Teaching of Psychology,39(2), pp.152-156. Woolworths Online. 2016.Woolworths Supermarket - Buy Groceries Online. [online] Available at: https://www.woolworths.com.au/ [Accessed 29 Aug. 2016].